Anglo-Saxon Runes (Futhorc)

The Anglo-Saxon runes (also called the Anglo-Frisian Futhorc) are the runic alphabet used by early English (Anglo-Saxons) and Frisian peoples. The name Futhorc comes from the first six runes (ᚠᚢᚦᚩᚱᚳ) and reflects its evolution from the 24-letter Elder Futhark. Around the 5th century AD, the Elder Futhark was extended and modified to represent Old English sounds, growing from 24 letters to about 28 in its early form and up to 33–34 in later versions. For example, the original rune Ansuz (ᚨ) was split into three variants (ᚪ āc, ᚫ æsc, ᚩ ōs) to capture new vowel sounds in Anglo-Saxon language.

History and use

The Futhorc Alphabet and rune meanings

Notable Anglo-Saxon Runes and Inscriptions Popular FAQs

Chart of the Anglo-Saxon futhorc runes with names and meanings (ᚠ Feoh “wealth”, ᚢ Ūr “strength”, … ᛥ Stan “stone”, etc.). Each rune had a name and symbolic meaning (e.g. ᚠ Feoh = wealth). The alphabet grew from ~26 letters in early Futhorc to 33 letters by the 9th–10th centuries.

Scholars debate where exactly the Anglo-Saxon runes were first developed. One theory suggests they originated in Frisia and spread to Britain with migrating tribes, while another proposes they came directly from Scandinavia into Britain. In practice, the earliest Anglo-Frisian runes appear by the 5th century AD in both Frisia and England. Regardless of origin, once established in Britain and Frisia, the runic alphabet adapted to local languages and continued in use alongside the Latin alphabet for centuries.

History and use

Anglo-Saxon runes were in active use from roughly the 5th century AD up through the 11th century. They were employed by pagan Anglo-Saxons and continued to be used by some even after Christianization. For example, monuments and objects made in the 7th–9th centuries often combine Christian symbols with runic text: St. Cuthbert’s 698 AD coffin lid bears a runic monogram of Christ, and a 7th-century comb from Whitby has a prayer in runes (“Deus meus, god aluwaldo…helpæ Cy,” meaning “my God, almighty God, help me”). Unlike on the European continent, runic writing in England did not immediately die out with Christianity. It was still used through the 8th–10th centuries (e.g. inscriptions on church crosses and grave markers) and even in small inscriptions on jewelry and coins. The Anglo-Saxon runes gradually fell out of use after the Norman Conquest of 1066, as Latin writing became dominant. In fact, by the 11th century common knowledge of Futhorc was fading – though a 12th-century manuscript (St John’s College, Oxford MS 17) shows that educated scribes still recognized most of the old runes. In total, fewer than 200 authentic Anglo-Frisian (Futhorc) inscriptions survive today, making them relatively rare remnants of this writing tradition.

The Futhorc Alphabet and rune meanings

The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc included about 29–33 letters (in two main stages): an early Futhorc of ~28 runes (5th–8th c.) and a late Futhorc expanded to 33–34 runes (9th–11th c.). The runes have traditional names (some inherited from Proto-Germanic) and each name had a meaning. For example, ᚠ Feoh means “wealth” (material goods, cattle), ᚢ Ūr means “aurochs” or “strength,” ᚦ Þorn means “thorn” (related to the god Thor), ᚩ Ōs means “god, mouth,” ᚱ Rād means “ride, journey,” and so on. These names appear in the Old English Rune Poem (a 10th-century composition), which has a verse for each of the 29 runes of the Anglo-Saxon alphabet. (For example, the poem’s stanza for Feoh: “Feoh byþ frofur ː foldan bilewþ” – roughly “Wealth is a comfort; it grows on the ground.”)

Because the exact inventory could vary by time and place, there was no single fixed Futhorc. But the “standard” late Anglo-Saxon runic alphabet (often called a 33- or 34-rune Futhorc) included all the familiar symbols above plus additional runes for sounds like ā, æ, ȳ, ēo, ī, ō, ōr, īar, ēar, etc. (For example, the original rune ᛡ “ger” split into ᛄ gēr and ᛡ/ᛄ īor, and later new runes like ᛠ ēar and ᛣ calc appeared.) In practice, scribes often mixed Latin and runic letters; in manuscripts like Beowulf, runes served as ideograms or abbreviations (e.g. ᛗ for mann). But for archaeological inscriptions, the Futhorc letters appear in their own runic form on monuments and objects.

Rune	Name (Old English)	Transliteration	Meaning / Symbolism
ᚠ	Feoh	F	Wealth, cattle, mobile value
ᚢ	Ur	U	Strength, wild ox
ᚦ	Thorn	Th	Thorn, defense, challenge
ᚩ	Os	O	God, divine speech
ᚱ	Rad	R	Journey, travel, progress
ᚳ	Cen	C or K	Torch, knowledge, clarity
ᚷ	Gyfu	G	Gift, generosity, exchange
ᚹ	Wynn	W	Joy, harmony, delight
ᚻ	Haegl	H	Hail, disruption, cleansing
ᚾ	Nyd	N	Need, constraint, hardship
ᛁ	Is	I	Ice, stillness, delay
ᛄ	Ger	J or Y	Year, harvest, cycles
ᛇ	Eoh	EO	Yew tree, death, resilience
ᛈ	Peorð	P	Luck, games, mystery
ᛉ	Eolhx / Elhaz	Z	Elk, protection, sanctuary
ᛋ	Sigel	S	Sun, success, clarity
ᛏ	Tir / Tiw	T	Honor, justice, sacrifice
ᛒ	Beorc	B	Birch, birth, new beginnings
ᛖ	Eh	E	Horse, movement, partnership
ᛗ	Mann	M	Man, society, human nature
ᛚ	Lagu	L	Water, flow, emotion
ᛝ	Ing	NG	Fertility, transformation
ᛟ	Ethel / Œthel	OE	Homeland, inheritance
ᛞ	Dæg	D	Day, awakening, clarity
ᚪ	Ac	A	Oak tree, endurance, strength
ᚫ	Æsc	Æ	Ash tree, connection, order
ᚣ	Yr	Y	Bow, discipline, skill
ᛡ	Ior	IO	Serpent, fluidity, sea-beast
ᛠ	Ear	EA	Earth, death, finality

Notable Anglo-Saxon Runes and Inscriptions

Because Futhorc was used for a few centuries, several important artifacts preserve Anglo-Saxon runes. A famous example is the Franks Casket (early 8th c.), an inscribed whalebone chest from Northumbria with the longest known coherent runic text in Old English (five alliterating lines of riddles). Another is St. Cuthbert’s coffin lid (698 AD) from Lindisfarne, bearing a runic frame around a Latin inscription.

The Anglo-Saxon Whitby II comb (c. 670 AD) carries a plea in runes on its back, illustrating early Christian use. In Anglo-Saxon England the Futhorc was also used ornamentally: six runic bloodstone rings from the 9th–10th centuries have engraved runes (often forming magical formulas). Overall, runic inscriptions in England tend to be brief (names or short words), but they show the alphabet in action in everyday life and art.

After the Norman Conquest, knowledge of the old runes waned. By the 12th–13th centuries they were mostly archaic curiosities. Still, the legacy of Futhorc survives in later English: the letters þ (thorn) and ƿ (wynn), originally runes, were carried into early Latin scripts (þ for “th,” ƿ eventually replaced by “w”). Today Anglo-Saxon runes appear mainly in academic study and revived interest in runic scripts.

Key Facts: The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (28–33 letters) evolved from the Elder Futhark to fit Old English. It was used roughly AD 400–1066, peaking in the 7th–10th centuries. A medieval poem (10th c.) documents each of its 29 runes. Futhorc runes are found on about 200 surviving artifacts, including carvings on stone, everyday objects, and monuments. The tradition faded after the Norman Conquest, but the alphabet’s names and forms are well recorded in rune-poems and manuscripts.

Popular FAQs

What does “Futhorc” mean?

“Futhorc” is simply the name of the Anglo-Saxon runic alphabet, taken from its first letters (ᚠ f, ᚢ u, ᚦ þ, ᚩ o, ᚱ r, ᚳ c). It reflects the old 6-letter word “fuþorc.” Anglo-Saxon runes are also called the Anglo-Frisian Futhorc.

How many runes are in the Anglo-Saxon alphabet?

Originally about 26–28 runes (in early Futhorc), eventually expanded up to 33 or 34 letters in later centuries. Early Futhorc closely matched Elder Futhark (24 letters) plus two splits (ᚨ into ᚪ, ᚫ, ᚩ); late Futhorc added runes for sounds like ēo, ȳ, ī, and others.

When did Anglo-Saxon runes originate and stop being used?

They appear by the 5th century AD (around the time of the Anglo-Saxon migrations) and continued through about the 10th–11th centuries. Futhorc was largely replaced by Latin letters after Christianization, and it disappeared from England by the century after the 1066 Norman Conquest.

How did the Anglo-Saxon runes come from Elder Futhark?

Essentially, the Anglo-Saxons took the older 24-letter Germanic rune set and added new letters to match Old English sounds. As noted, ᚨ split into ᚪ, ᚫ, ᚩ (ac, æsc, ōs), and later runes were invented for additional vowels/consonants (such as ᛄ gēr, ᛡ ier, ᛠ ear, ᛣ calc, etc.). So Futhorc is a “stretched” futhark to cover the phonetics of English/Frisian.

Are Anglo-Saxon runes used today?

Only in a historical or decorative sense. They no longer serve as a living writing system. However, scholars study Futhorc in manuscripts, and some modern enthusiasts use runes for art, tattoos, or neopagan practices. The runes themselves are fully recorded (in monuments and rune-poems), so they’re known symbols even if not used for practical writing.

Where can I see Anglo-Saxon runes?

Surviving Anglo-Saxon runes are found on archaeological artifacts (like brooches, swords, and stone carvings) mostly in England, with a few in Frisia and mainland Europe. Museums with Anglo-Saxon collections (e.g. British Museum, National Museum of Denmark) display items like St. Cuthbert’s coffin, Franks Casket, or inscribed crosses. The Old English Rune Poem (preserved in a 10th-c. manuscript) also lists the names of all 29 runes, so you can look up each rune’s meaning in it.