What are runes – a detailed guide

My name is Julia, and I am a professional runologist. For me, runes are not just ancient symbols but a living field of research and inspiration. In this article, I will explain what runes are – their history, cultural significance, magical uses, and modern practice. I will share academic knowledge, practical experience, respect for tradition, and a critical perspective, avoiding mystical clichés. My goal is to provide the best overview of runes for anyone interested, combining spiritual and symbolic meaning with real facts.

Contents:

• History of the Origin of Runes

• Runes in Culture and Mythology

• Ancient Uses of Runes

• Modern Use of Runes

• Personal Observations of a Runologist

• Frequently Asked Questions about Runes
  

History of the origin of runes and the evolution of alphabets

Runestone from Rök (9th century, Sweden) with a long inscription in Old Norse – an example of what runic texts on stone looked like.

The history of runes begins in deep antiquity. Runes are the letters of a special alphabet used by ancient Germanic peoples. The earliest known runic alphabet is the Elder Futhark, consisting of 24 characters. It was used at least from the mid-2nd century AD until the 8th century. For example, the oldest reliably dated runic inscription is the word harja (“warrior” or “comb”) carved on a comb from the Danish bog of Vimose (~160 AD). This indicates that by that time a runic writing tradition already existed – likely with at least a century of development before that first find.

The origin of the runic script is not completely clear: scholars see similarities with Latin and ancient Italic (Etruscan) alphabets, as well as variants of Greek writing. Possibly, Germanic peoples borrowed the idea of writing from Mediterranean cultures, adapting the letters for carving into wood and metal. Scandinavian mythology provides its own answer: runes were discovered by the chief god Odin, who brought them to humans after the greatest sacrifice. According to the “Sayings of the High One” (Hávamál), Odin hung for nine nights, pierced by his own spear, on the world tree Yggdrasil, without food or drink, until he perceived the secrets of runes. This powerful metaphor underscores the sacred status of runes: knowledge obtained at the price of suffering and sacrifice.

After the Elder Futhark, the runic tradition split. In the Viking Age (8th–11th centuries) in Scandinavia, the Younger Futhark appeared – an alphabet of 16 runes, simplified and changed to suit the language of that time. Meanwhile, in England and Frisia, the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (5th–11th centuries) developed from the Elder Futhark, expanded to 28–33 characters to represent the sounds of Old English. In the Middle Ages, new variants continued to arise: the so-called Medieval Futhork (emerging by the 13th century) added characters and dots to clarify vowels, and in the remote Swedish province of Dalarna, a runic tradition persisted up to the 19th century. In total, runes were used for about one and a half millennia – from the 1st century AD and, in some areas, into very recent times.

Runic inscriptions were chiseled or carved on various materials: stone, metal, wood, bone. The shape of the characters is angular, with no smooth curves – presumably to make them easy to cut into hard surfaces. Today around 5,000 runic inscriptions are known (the majority in Sweden). These inscriptions are invaluable sources: for example, the numerous Viking Age runestones standing across Scandinavia are the only surviving texts created by the Scandinavians themselves from that era. The inscriptions on stones are often extremely concise or worn away by time, but even their short phrases shed light on the language, names, and customs of ancient peoples.

It’s important to note: runes are not a language, but a writing system. The same runic characters were used to write different ancient Germanic languages in different regions. For the languages spoken in Scandinavia, Britain, and continental Europe, runes served as the alphabet. Therefore, it’s incorrect to ask “what language are runes written in” – it’s more accurate to ask which languages were written with the runic script (answer: Proto-Germanic, Old Norse, Old English, etc.). After the Christianization of Europe, runes were gradually replaced by the Latin alphabet – in Central Europe by the 8th–9th century, and in Scandinavia by the 12th century. However, echoes of the runic writing system were seen even later – for instance, runic calendar staves were used in the folk culture of Northern Europe up until the 19th century.

The meaning of the word "rune" and runes in culture and mythology

The word “rune” literally means a secret or whisper. In the ancient Germanic languages, rūn meant “secret, mystery, whispered spell” – as evidenced by cognates: Gothic rūna, Old Norse rún, Old High German rūna – “secret, mystery, incantation, whisper.” In other words, originally rune referred not to a letter, but to secret knowledge. Later, the term came to denote the characters themselves — the marks used to record this secret knowledge. It’s likely that the ancient Germanic peoples indeed saw runes not just as letters but as sacred symbols. Both mythology and archaeological finds support this view.

In Norse mythology, runes were not invented by people, but existed from the beginning as part of the cosmic order. The chief god Odin merely obtained them and shared them with humans, becoming the patron of runic lore and wisdom. In the Norse view, runes are a gift of Odin, something of divine origin (the Old Icelandic word reginkunnr – “of divine origin” – is used in the sagas in relation to runes). Hence the special attitude: runes are not just utilitarian marks, but holy knowledge. The world tree Yggdrasil, on which Odin discovered the runes, also became part of runic symbolism. For example, in the Elder Edda runes are called the branches or fruits of this world-tree. The tree connects the worlds, and runes, as it were, “stitch together” the realm of the gods and the world of humans.

Runes are linked with other figures from Norse myth as well. For instance, the god Týr gives his name to the rune Tiwaz (Teiwaz) – the rune of the warrior and the sky-god. Thor, the thunder-god, is mentioned on runestones – inscriptions often call on Thor to hallow the runes (for example, on the Glavendrup stone one inscription says: “Þórr vigi these runes…” – “May Thor hallow these runes…”). The Norns – the fate-weaving maidens who spin the threads of destiny – are also woven into the runic tradition: legends say the Norns carved runes on sticks, determining each person’s fate. Thus, runes permeated the cultural code of the Norse: they figure in creation myths, in legends about heroes, and even in magical songs (galdrar) that Odin himself was said to sing.

The etymology of rune is reflected in its usage: rune could also mean a spell or a riddle. For example, in Anglo-Saxon poetry the word rūn could mean a secret conversation or a cryptic utterance. In Scandinavian folklore, runes are mentioned as something mysterious that the uninitiated cannot comprehend. All these cultural nuances present runes as symbols of hidden knowledge, a gift of higher powers, a tool that requires respect and wisdom. Even when runes were used in everyday contexts (on gravestones, coins, decorations), the aura of mystery around them remained.

I must also mention the poetic names of the runes. In the surviving Rune Poems (medieval verse mnemonics), each rune is described through an allegory. For example, the rune Fehu – “wealth, cattle”; Algiz – “elk” or “protection”; Sowilo – “sun”; Ehwaz – “horse”; and so on. These images are woven into the culture: the Rune Poems taught not only the alphabet but also values and worldview. Seeing a rune, someone knowledgeable would recall a line from a poem: for instance, the rune Uruz (úr) was associated with the mighty aurochs – symbol of wild natural strength. Thus, each rune had not only a sound, but also a “character” – a set of meanings and associations rooted in myth and in the realities of northern life.

Magical and practical uses of runes in antiquity

Historically, runes served as an everyday writing system, but they were also ascribed special, magical properties. Sagas and folklore mention numerous ways runic magic was used: with runes people tried to learn the future, protect against misfortune, cast or lift curses, heal illnesses. It’s important to understand that actual archaeological evidence doesn’t show mass magical use – the majority of discovered runic inscriptions have fairly mundane content (names, memorial phrases, ownership marks). Nonetheless, there are a few examples that give us insight into the magical side of the runic tradition.

For one, a number of artifacts have been found with mysterious runic formulas. A frequently encountered sequence of symbols is ᚨᛚᚢ (alu) – it’s found on many amulets and objects from the 3rd–7th centuries. What alu means is not entirely clear: possibly “ale, beer” (a toast for good fortune) or perhaps it’s some incantatory word. Aside from alu, there are other short word-formulas like laþu, laukaz, etc., which may have served as charms or curses. One can imagine a warrior or hunter carving a couple of secret runes on his weapon — “for luck.”

Amulets with runes provide further evidence of belief in the magic of letters. For example, archaeologists have found runic bracteates – thin gold pendants with images and runic inscriptions (worn as talismans). Many of them contain the runes ᛞᛟᛟᛟ (transliterated as doo?) or the aforementioned alu. Perhaps these symbols were meant to protect the owner or attract wealth. In Anglo-Saxon England we know of runic spears and swords: blades where a name, spell, or just a set of runes was engraved – likely so the weapon would “gain power.” One vivid example is a spear on which runes spell a word translated as “Odin’s javelin” – possibly to imbue the spear with the deadly power of the legendary Gungnir (Odin’s spear).

The sagas also describe healing and sorcery using runes. In Egil’s Saga, the famous skald Egil Skallagrímsson discovers that an unskilled healer had scratched some incorrect runes and placed them under a sick girl’s bed, making her condition worse. Egil scrapes off those runes, carves new ones – the correct ones – puts them under her pillow, and the girl recovers. The moral of this story: runes are dangerous in untrained hands. In the same saga, Egil uses runes to curse some enemies with sleeplessness – and succeeds. Other tales speak of runes used to stir love: for example, in later ballads a hero carves runes on a wooden staff and, with a flourish, causes a girl to fall in love with him (though he accidentally enchants the wrong maiden!).

Runestones sometimes contain curses aimed at potential violators. On the aforementioned Glavendrup stone (Denmark, early 10th century), after the main inscription about the deceased, an additional warning is carved: “And may Thor hallow these runes. He shall be a sorcerer (outcast) who damages this stone or moves it…” This text is clearly a curse: whoever disrespects the memorial and disturbs the stone will meet a dire fate (declaring someone a sorcerer in that context labels them a malicious wrongdoer). Similar curses are found on other monuments, indicating that people truly believed properly carved words could bring about supernatural consequences.

Overall, in antiquity runes were used both as a practical tool for writing and as a key to hidden forces. Perhaps the boundary between “ordinary” and “magical” uses was blurred back then. If a person believed that merely inscribing a name could protect the memory of the deceased, or that carving a certain word would bring good luck – where does the mundane end and the mysticism begin? Most likely, the literate few of that era were seen as a bit magical in the eyes of others. After all, the ability to “speak in secret signs” was already a kind of sorcery to the uninitiated.

It’s worth mentioning divination by runes as well. There is no direct proof that Vikings divined by casting runes, but the Roman historian Tacitus, writing in the 1st century AD, described a Germanic method of divination using “lots marked with symbols cut from wood.” He wrote that they would scatter these marked twigs on a white cloth; then a priest or the head of the family, after praying, would pick up three of them and interpret the symbols that were drawn. Tacitus didn’t explicitly name runes, but the description is suspiciously similar. He may well have been referring to runic symbols. Supporting this is the German verb raunen (“to whisper, to divine”), likely related to rūn, suggesting that divination and runes were linked even then. Thus, the tradition of rune casting very likely was practiced among early Germanic peoples – although no instruction manuals from the Vikings themselves have survived.

Modern use of runes: divination, meditation, symbolism, mistakes and profanation

As paradoxical as it sounds, today runes are known far more widely than in ancient times. In the 20th century they experienced a real revival – they began to be used for fortune-telling, esotericism, and even psychological practices. However, this modern interest often comes with myths and distortions. Let’s talk about how runes are used today, and what misconceptions to be aware of.

A modern set of divinatory runes made of obsidian, including the 24 symbols of the Elder Futhark and one blank “rune” (a 20th-century innovation). Such sets are popular in esoteric practices.

Runic divination in its current form is a creation of modern times. In 1982, Ralph Blum’s book “The Book of Runes: A Handbook for the Use of an Ancient Oracle” was published, which popularized the idea of drawing runes from a bag, much like tarot cards. Blum’s kit included the stones with runic symbols and… a blank “rune” which he dubbed Odin’s rune – a symbol of fate and the unknowable.

Historians can only chuckle at this: not a single ancient set contained blank pieces, and the method of divination Blum described is based more on intuitive-psychological practice than any authentic Scandinavian ritual. Nevertheless, thanks to Blum’s work, millions of people were introduced to runes specifically as a divination tool. Now there are many rune sets for sale – wooden, stone, clay – often with instructions for fortune-telling. Typically they include the 24 runes of the Elder Futhark plus that “blank” one (though serious enthusiasts toss the blank piece out immediately, as it has no basis in tradition).

Aside from Blum, other occultists contributed as well. For example, early 20th-century esotericist Guido von List in 1908 claimed that 18 “Armanen runes” were revealed to him – supposedly a secret ancient futhark for magic. This was a mix of historic runes and invented symbols. Later, Nazism dabbled with List’s ideas: the SS incorporated so-called “runic writing” into their insignia (the double Sig rune ⚡ – the SS symbol, the Othala rune ᛟ – emblem of “heritage,” etc.). In effect, the Nazis perverted these runic signs, making them part of an ideology of hate – which is, in my view, one of the worst profanations of the ancient symbols. To this day, neo-Nazis use runes in their iconography, which has led, for example, to some runes being considered extremist symbols in the West. As a runologist and as a person, I regard such “legacy” with extreme disapproval – true runes have nothing to do with racism or totalitarianism; their meaning lies in a completely different realm.

Back to the positive. Modern esotericism and neopaganism have incorporated runes into various practices: meditations on runic imagery, using runes in talismans, energy healing, even “runic yoga” (where people stand in poses mimicking rune shapes to channel some energy). Most of these approaches are inventions of individual authors in the 20th century.

The psychological use of runes is an interesting contemporary development. Many practitioners view drawing a rune as a way to peer into the subconscious and ponder a situation from a new angle. For example, if someone pulls the rune Hagalaz (“hail, disruption”), they might consider: what in their life needs a shake-up, or what sudden event has jolted them – and how can they learn from it? In this way, runes serve similarly to Jungian archetypes or tarot images. There’s no blind mysticism here – runes become a tool for meditative self-reflection.

However, profanation of runes also occurs – when people start using them carelessly or without real understanding. Online you can find generators of “runic spells” for all woes, offers to tattoo a rune on your body for instant wish fulfillment, or random mixing of runes with anything (from astrology to Reiki) without any coherent system.

Perhaps the most common misconception is thinking of runes as “all-powerful magic symbols” that by themselves change reality. In my experience as a runologist, a rune only “works” when you understand its meaning and put your intention into it. Wearing a bunch of runes around your neck mindlessly “for strength” is like wearing a charm with Chinese characters whose meaning you don’t know. (By the way, Chinese characters are a good analogy: one can write and read Chinese simply as text, or one can see in those characters an aesthetic and symbolic meaning. It’s exactly the same with runes.)

Another mistake is equating runes with Paganism in general. Runes are historically linked to pagan cultures, but by themselves they are not a religion. You can use runes without being a follower of Norse paganism; conversely, you can practice the Norse faith without assigning any special role to runes. They are a tool – everything depends on the hands and mind that wield it.

In summary, modern engagement with runes is very diverse. There is academic study – excavations, deciphering inscriptions, comparing ancient languages. There is artistic use – incorporating rune imagery in logos, tattoos, and design (for example, the Bluetooth symbol is composed of the runic letters ᛒ and ᛖ – the initials of King Harald “Bluetooth”). There is esoteric use – divination, amulets, meditation. And, unfortunately, there is ideological misuse – which I view with sadness. A rune is like a mirror: it reflects the person who gazes into it. For some, it’s a key to the wisdom of the ancestors; for others, a beautiful pattern; for others, an excuse to brandish a “magic sword.”

Personal observations of a runologist: approaches, advice, interpretation experience

Now I’d like to move from facts to the personal – to share my experience as a runologist and give a few tips for beginners. Over the years I’ve gone from a simple fascination with rune fortune-telling to a deep immersion in languages and history. And each stage was important.

My approach to runes combines science and intuition. On one hand, I maintain rigor: I study languages (Old Norse, Gothic – at least the basics), read academic research, and keep up with archaeological findings. Without this, it’s easy to drift into fantasy and mistake wishful thinking for reality. On the other hand, runes are not just about grammar and dating artifacts, but also about personal discovery. I meditate on rune symbols, try writing my thoughts in runes in my journal, draw them by hand. When you carve a rune into wood yourself, you feel a connection across time – making the same knife strokes, hearing the same scrape of wood that a carver did a thousand years ago.

Advice for beginners I would sum up in a few points:

• Start with history. Read about the Elder Futhark, learn the context – when and where the people who used it lived. This will dispel many misconceptions. For example, knowing that runes are a writing system, you won’t be asking “what language do runes speak?” or other misguided questions.

• Study the rune meanings from original sources. There are Rune Poems (Anglo-Saxon, Norwegian, Icelandic) – they briefly describe each rune’s name and give an allegorical verse. These are authentic “keys.” Yes, the language is poetic, but it’s far better to rely on them than on modern made-up definitions.

• Practice with respect. If you want to try divination – by all means do, but treat it not as a parlor trick, rather as a conversation with yourself and the culture of your ancestors. Write down your questions and the runes you pull, reflect on them, find how they relate to your life. Don’t expect that a rune will “predict” a football score or give you a direct “yes/no” answer. They speak in the language of symbols.

• Beware of absolutism. No one holds the “ultimate truth” about runes – even professionals debate interpretations. If someone claims that only they know the correct meanings and everyone else is a “dilettante” – steer clear of such gurus. Runes teach wisdom, not fanaticism.

• Remember moderation. Personally, runes have helped me better understand Viking culture and given me a tool for creative thinking. But I don’t place responsibility for my decisions on them. A rune casting is advice, food for thought, not an order or an excuse. For example, if I draw the rune Gebo (gift, partnership), I take it as a reminder of the importance of exchange and cooperation – but I decide myself what to do with that insight.

Everyone’s experience of interpretation is unique. Let me share one of my vivid examples. A few years ago, when I was going through a professional crisis, I turned to the runes asking for guidance on my path forward. One of the symbols I drew was the rune Perthro (Perth) – an enigmatic one, associated with fate and chance. Traditional explanations describe Perthro as a “lot-cup” (a cup used for casting dice or lots), a kind of mystical vessel of destiny. This rune prompted me to embrace the uncertainty of my situation as part of the game – and instead of fear, I felt excitement at the new possibilities. In the end, I dared to change my job and research direction, which turned out to be for the better. For me, Perthro became a symbol of transformation through accepting the unknown. Of course, the rune didn’t make the decision for me – but it helped me view things differently and step forward with more courage.

Another example – when I was preparing to give a public lecture about runes, I was very nervous. I drew the rune Ansuz – a rune connected with Odin, patron of wisdom and eloquence. Its meaning is “the god’s mouth,” inspired speech. This gave me confidence: essentially, it told me to speak from the heart, and the words will find their mark. The lecture went wonderfully. Again, was it magic at work or just my mindset? Either way, the rune triggered an inner resource – my ability to speak passionately about a subject I love.

As a researcher, I of course separate these subjective interpretations from scientific facts. But as a human being, I treasure them. Runes are multifaceted: they are historical artifacts, part of ancient languages, cultural heritage, and a tool for self-discovery. To me, the key is sincerity and respect. If you approach the runes with love and curiosity, they will respond in kind.

Frequently asked questions about runes

Is a rune a letter or something magical?

First and foremost, a rune is a letter of an alphabet. Ancient people used runes to write texts (names, prayers, memorial inscriptions). But unlike the letters we use today, runes were surrounded by an aura of sacredness and mystery. So you could say a rune is both a sign and a symbol. For a priest, a rune might have been a magical key; for a warrior – a battle talisman; for a stonecarver – just a convenient alphabet. Today, we can also use runes on both levels: as letters (for example, to write your name in runes) and as symbols (to meditate on their meaning).

Where should I start learning about runes?

I recommend starting with history and the basics: the Elder Futhark – 24 runes. Learn their names, sounds, and main images. Read the Rune Poems – they’re short but give an initial sense of each rune. Then you can turn to books by well-known authors (Ralph Blum’s are popular, but remember his “blank rune”; better are the works of professional runologists such as Edred Thorsson (Stephen Flowers) – though he writes with an occult bias – or Marvin Taylor).

Also, practice writing in runes – try writing your notes or friends’ names. This will make the runes “come alive” for you as a script. Only then move on to the complex stuff – divination, making amulets – once you’re already confident in what each rune historically means.

Can runes be used as amulets and talismans today?

Yes, they can – if you do it thoughtfully and with respect. Many people wear pendants with runes or draw them on personal items, investing them with a particular intent. For example, the rune Algiz (protection) on a keychain might psychologically give you a sense of safety. It’s important to understand: the power of a talisman isn’t in some mystical energy of the wood or metal, but in your intention and understanding. If you know the rune’s meaning well and it consistently reminds you of that meaning – the talisman works as an anchor for your mind.

But don’t expect miracles: drawing the rune Fehu (wealth) on your wallet and waiting for a million dollars is naive. On the other hand, as a symbol of thrift and attracting luck in business – why not? Also, I advise learning the symbolism of combinations: some runes together might form a completely different word or carry an unwanted connotation. Always double-check.

Are there “bad” and “good” runes?

Runes don’t have strictly positive or negative meanings – each rune is multifaceted. In ancient times runes weren’t split into “light” and “dark” sets; that division is a modern fantasy. Yes, some runes are associated with hardship: Hagalaz (hail) – a sudden blow of fate; Isa (ice) – stagnation; Thurisaz (giant) – danger. But they also carry necessary lessons (a hailstorm brings moisture to the earth, ice preserves, a giant can be overcome with wisdom). And the “good” runes like Wunjo (joy) or Fehu (prosperity) have a flipside too: excessive joy can make one careless, property demands responsibility. So I’d say: runes are neutral – we are the ones who color them positive or negative in context. In a rune reading, “unpleasant” runes often point out areas for growth, while “pleasant” ones indicate resources and opportunities. In life as well, there is no absolute good or evil – everything is relative and interconnected.

Can you write modern languages in runes?

Technically, you can write any language in runes if you map the sounds appropriately. Enthusiasts write even English or Russian words in runes (you can find correspondence tables online). But keep in mind: some sounds don’t have a direct equivalent in the Futhark, so you have to improvise. For example, runes have no single letters for the sounds ts or shch, so those are represented by combinations or similar sounds. Also, the Latin letters C, Q, X, Y are absent – one would use K, KW, KS, I/J respectively to substitute. I sometimes address postcards to friends in runic script – it’s fun and looks cool. However, for serious texts the regular alphabet is more practical, and you can reserve runes as a decorative or creative element. And note: if you write a modern text in runes, it will be as slow to read as a cipher, since people around you aren’t trained in that alphabet!

In conclusion, I want to say: studying runes is a journey. It requires a balance between heart and mind. Runes can teach you a lot: patience, respect for the word, humility before the unknown (after all, not all secrets have been unraveled to this day). For me, runes became a bridge connecting me with past generations and with my own self. I hope this article helped you take a broader look at runes, to feel their spirit without the trappings but also without dry skepticism. As ever, the secret of the runes whispers to us – and each generation hears its own whisper. Who knows, maybe you will hear it too? Good luck on your path to understanding the runes!